Music that unfolds in colonial locations can undergo transformations in a post-colonial context that move from consumption and evaluation by the Western gaze, to post-colonial agency and even independence. The Filipino choral music tradition and its historiography provide a rich example of the continual re-negotiation surrounding the role of music against changing political and social structures, in this case colonial shifts from Spanish conquest and American colonisation to post-World War II independence as the Philippines. Analyzing the multiplicity found in musical reactions to colonialism and post-colonialism, in both academic work and in practice, exposes the agency of Filipino musicians and musicologists and offers a more nuanced perspective on Filipino musical tradition.
Music under colonialism
Figure 1: Juan Luna, 1884. “Spoliarium.” Oil on canvas. National Museum of Fine Arts, Manila.
Music served as an agent for the dissemination of Western perspectives and Christianity in the Philippines over a 350-year period of colonial rule first under Spain (1565-1898) and subsequently by the United States of America (1898-1946). From 1500-1750, historical reports by Spanish government officials describe Filipino music practices, noting the use of gongs, bamboo trumpets, and bells for ritual and festival (Dioquino 1982, 124-25). The Western evaluation of Filipino music is thus a direct outcome of colonization, as the reports were written by those
“dealing primarily with the military conquest, government, administration or Christianization of […] the Philippines” (Dioquino 1982, 124). From 1750-1900, more published material became available; however, it consisted similarly of official documents and travelogues by Western military and government officials (Dioquino 1982, 126). Although from 1900 to 1950, anthropologists, ethnologists, folklorists, linguists, and academics considered Filipino music practices, these authors largely represented Western colonialist perspectives, consumption, and evaluation (Dioquino 1982, 129).
“dealing primarily with the military conquest, government, administration or Christianization of […] the Philippines” (Dioquino 1982, 124). From 1750-1900, more published material became available; however, it consisted similarly of official documents and travelogues by Western military and government officials (Dioquino 1982, 126). Although from 1900 to 1950, anthropologists, ethnologists, folklorists, linguists, and academics considered Filipino music practices, these authors largely represented Western colonialist perspectives, consumption, and evaluation (Dioquino 1982, 129).
Figure 2: Fernando Amorsolo, 1955. “Portrait of a Lady.” Oil on canvas. Private Collection, Manila.
Music and musical practices have long served as tools for the negotiation (and renegotiation) of social and religious practices. The Philippines — a largely Christian nation today — was introduced to Roman Catholicism by Spain during its colonization and later to Protestantism by Americans (Stallsmith 2021, 1). Within liturgical music, “pieces were set to texts in a variety of languages — Latin, Spanish, and several Philippine languages–and the forms of the songs, while dominated by European instruments […] nonetheless contained elements of indigenous music making” (Stallsmith 2021, 2). Similarly, in the 1850s, “the educated upper class in urban centers sang Andalusian songs and danced Spanish dances” (Dioquino 1982, 127). Music demarcated class through its ability to show proximity to Western colonial culture. Through processes of colonization and the dissemination of religion, music was utilized in a way that melded Western practices with local ones.
Despite the domination of Spanish colonialist practices, Filipino choral music in the eighteenth century became a site of cultural multi-ethnic hybridization. The loa genre, a spoken or sung piece set in verse and expressing respect in honour of an important figure, originates as an introductory piece to both seventeenth-century Spanish sacred drama and secular theatre (Irving 2004, 386–87). Loa include texts in Spanish and Latin as well as Indigenous languages, sometimes incorporating Tagalog texts — a Filipino language influenced by indigenous Filipino languages, Spanish, and English (Irving 2004, 396). The loa choral genre demonstrated hybridization in its music as well as texts. Loa used polychoral and antiphonal techniques that musicologist David Irving theorizes as an Italianate style (2004, 392); it also blended Asian musical styles, including Tagalog text and Chinese lion and dragon dance accompaniments (Irving 2004, 398). Despite the considerable pressure of colonialist rule, Filipino musical practices reflect a multi-ethnic identity and hybridized musical expression that resists complete sublimation to European musical practices.
Despite the domination of Spanish colonialist practices, Filipino choral music in the eighteenth century became a site of cultural multi-ethnic hybridization. The loa genre, a spoken or sung piece set in verse and expressing respect in honour of an important figure, originates as an introductory piece to both seventeenth-century Spanish sacred drama and secular theatre (Irving 2004, 386–87). Loa include texts in Spanish and Latin as well as Indigenous languages, sometimes incorporating Tagalog texts — a Filipino language influenced by indigenous Filipino languages, Spanish, and English (Irving 2004, 396). The loa choral genre demonstrated hybridization in its music as well as texts. Loa used polychoral and antiphonal techniques that musicologist David Irving theorizes as an Italianate style (2004, 392); it also blended Asian musical styles, including Tagalog text and Chinese lion and dragon dance accompaniments (Irving 2004, 398). Despite the considerable pressure of colonialist rule, Filipino musical practices reflect a multi-ethnic identity and hybridized musical expression that resists complete sublimation to European musical practices.
Music post-colonialism
The Philippines’ independence following World War II invited a post-colonial renegotiation of musical practices and musicological perspectives. In the 1950s, there was a historiographical shift from the traditional Western gaze to one of Filipino conservation and self-reflection. Filipino universities began to support research on Philippine music (Dioquino 1982, 131). Dioquino (1982, 131) specifically points to Filipino composer and academic José Maceda, who has, since 1953, spearheaded a project that collects, catalogues, and studies indigenous music across the Philippines. Not only do projects like this one result in scholarship informed by Filipino perspectives, but they also cultivate and illuminate musical traditions that were previously unrecognized, enabling Filipino scholarly independence and agency.
Figure 3: Victoria Edades, Carlos Francisco, and Galo B. Ocampo, 1935. “The Interaction.”
Oil on canvas. Eleuterio Pascual Collection.
Oil on canvas. Eleuterio Pascual Collection.
Figure 4: Rodel Tapaya, 2017. “Dry Spell.” Acrylic on canvas. Ardt Fine Art.
The shift in political structure (from colonial to post-colonial) facilitated agency for Filipino musicians and musicologists in ways that transformed musical practice. Contemporary loa were adapted into traditional folkloric practice; references to God, biblical images, and saints were removed, rendering it suitable for secular practice (Irving 2004, 398). This further post-colonial localization of the loa marks a clear separation from the colonial Christian histories that informed its past practices: this shift can be understood as a move to independence unfolding within a post-colonial musical practice.
Similarly, in religious contexts, various post-World War II music integration efforts showcase the independence of musical actors. For example, the 1970s Papuri genre encompasses original choral hymns for Protestant Filipino churches — these pieces were composed in Tagalog, and musically aligned with Western popular music structures of verses, choruses, and a bridge (Stallsmith 2021, 4). In contrast, the ‘Word for the World’ movement disseminated American Protestant English-language songs in the 1980s, because Filipino Pentecostal churches believed that the Holy Spirit transcends barriers of language differences (Stallsmith 2021, 7). Finally, the Day by Day Ministries congregation, launched in the 1980s, sought to “represent an essentialized version of Philippine Christianity,” by utilizing traditional music and dance (Stallsmith 2021, 8). The vast diversity in approaches and practices of hybridization in post-colonial musical practices in the Philippines reflect Filipino agency and independence.
Similarly, in religious contexts, various post-World War II music integration efforts showcase the independence of musical actors. For example, the 1970s Papuri genre encompasses original choral hymns for Protestant Filipino churches — these pieces were composed in Tagalog, and musically aligned with Western popular music structures of verses, choruses, and a bridge (Stallsmith 2021, 4). In contrast, the ‘Word for the World’ movement disseminated American Protestant English-language songs in the 1980s, because Filipino Pentecostal churches believed that the Holy Spirit transcends barriers of language differences (Stallsmith 2021, 7). Finally, the Day by Day Ministries congregation, launched in the 1980s, sought to “represent an essentialized version of Philippine Christianity,” by utilizing traditional music and dance (Stallsmith 2021, 8). The vast diversity in approaches and practices of hybridization in post-colonial musical practices in the Philippines reflect Filipino agency and independence.
PHILIPPE MADRIGAL SINGERS. 2022, "Philippe Madrigal Singers: Paraiso." YouTube video https://youtu.be/xyrjAKP6iWE.
In scholarship, approach, and practice, the Filipino choral tradition offers a complex example of cultural renegotiation through music created during past colonial contexts. This complexity does not allow for straightforward interpretation, but the presence of agency is undeniable. Through their choral music, Filipino musicians and musicologists challenge the colonial inheritance of Western consumption and evaluation in their cultivation of new, hybridized musical practices.
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Bibliography
DIOQUINO, Corazon C. 1982. “Musicology in the Philippines.” Acta Musicologica, vol. 54, no. 1: p. 124-47. https://doi.org/10.2307/932360.
IRVING, David. 2004. “Musical Politics of Empire: The Loa in 18th-Century Manila.” Early Music, vol. 23, no. 3: p. 384-402.
STALLSMITH, Glenn. 2021. “Protestant Congregational Song in the Philippines: Localization through Translation and Hybridization.” Religions, vol. 12, no. 708: p. 1-12.
IRVING, David. 2004. “Musical Politics of Empire: The Loa in 18th-Century Manila.” Early Music, vol. 23, no. 3: p. 384-402.
STALLSMITH, Glenn. 2021. “Protestant Congregational Song in the Philippines: Localization through Translation and Hybridization.” Religions, vol. 12, no. 708: p. 1-12.